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Indicates the passive subject, purpose, or specific time.
私は上司に褒められた。
I was praised by my boss.
健康を保つために、毎日運動する。
To stay healthy, I exercise every day.
会議は10時に始まる。
The meeting starts at 10 o’clock.
Marks the cause for an action, the context of an event, or a limit:
風邪で学校を休んだ。
I missed school because of a cold.
この町では夜は静かで、よく眠れる。
In this town, it’s quiet at night, so I can sleep well.
このバッグは1万円で買えた。
I bought this bag for 10,000 yen.
Marks the direct object of a verb or movement through a place:
公園を散歩するのが好きだ。
I like strolling through the park.
毎日、図書館の前を通る。
Every day, I pass by the library.
新しい本を借りて読んだ。
I borrowed and read a new book.
Shows the cause, method, agent (in passive sentences), or variation of something, with 〜により being more formal:
人によって好きな食べ物は違う。
Favorite foods differ depending on the person.
天気により、試合が中止になるかもしれない。
The game might be canceled depending on the weather.
この絵は有名な画家によって描かれた。
This painting was drawn by a famous artist.
Indicates the target of an action or attitude, meaning "toward" or "against."
先生に対して敬意を払うべきだ。
You should show respect toward the teacher.
問題に対して真剣に考えた。
I seriously thought about the issue.
会社は新しい規則に対し反対した。
The company opposed the new regulations.
Indicates a proportional change, meaning "as" something happens, something else changes.
年を取るにつれて、記憶力が弱くなる。
As you get older, your memory weakens.
技術の進歩に伴って、生活が便利になる。
As technology advances, life becomes more convenient.
経験が増えるにつれて、仕事が速くなった。
As experience increases, work becomes faster.
Making or letting someone do something, often showing authority or permission. Used with the verb stem + させる (Group I/II) or せる (Group III).
母は子供に部屋を掃除させた。
The mother made the child clean the room.
先生は生徒に宿題を出させる。
The teacher has the students submit homework.
友達に新しいゲームを試させた。
I let my friend try a new game.
Passive voice, where the subject receives the action from an agent:
私は先生に褒められた。
I was praised by the teacher.
この本は多くの人に読まれた。
This book was read by many people.
子供は親に叱られた。
The child was scolded by the parents.
Causative-passive: being forced to do something, often with a negative or unwilling nuance. Combines causative and passive forms させる + られる:
会社で残業をさせられた。
I was made to work overtime at the company.
子供は親に野菜を食べさせられた。
The child was forced to eat vegetables by the parents.
私は友達に長い会議に参加させられた。
I was forced by my friend to attend a long meeting.
Potential: the ability to do something. Often with が for the object.
漢字がスラスラ読めるようになった。
I’ve become able to read kanji fluently.
この川は泳げるほどきれいだ。
This river is clean enough to swim in.
重い荷物は持てない。
I can’t carry heavy luggage.
Combines て-form with auxiliaries like ~ておく (do in advance) or ~てしまう (complete or regret). N3 emphasizes these for planning or emotional nuance.
旅行の前に切符を買っておく。
I’ll buy the ticket in advance before the trip.
ケーキを全部食べてしまった。
I ate the entire cake (and regret it).
宿題を終わらせておいた。
I finished the homework in advance.
An attempt or intention to do something with a sense of effort or failure. Formed with volitional form (よう) + とする.
ドアを開けようとしたが、鍵がかかっていた。
I tried to open the door, but it was locked.
早く起きようとしたけど、寝坊した。
I tried to wake up early, but I overslept.
新しい料理を作ろうとしたが、材料がなかった。
I tried to make a new dish, but there were no ingredients.
"if", a hypothetical or general condition:
毎日勉強すれば、試験に受かる。
If you study every day, you’ll pass the exam.
天気がよければ、公園に行く。
If the weather is nice, I’ll go to the park.
時間があれば、映画を見たい。
If I have time, I want to watch a movie.
"when", a specific result or condition, often tied to a particular event or past discovery. Formed with verb/adjective た-form + ら (e.g., 行ったら, 高かったら).
家に帰ったら、誰もいなかった。
When I got home, no one was there.
お金が貯まったら、旅行に行く予定だ。
If I save enough money, I plan to go on a trip.
店に着いたら、閉まっていた。
When I arrived at the store, it was closed.
Indicates a contextual condition or assumption, often meaning "if it’s the case that" or suggesting something based on a situation. Formed with verb/adjective/noun + なら.
学生なら、この本がおすすめだ。
If you’re a student, this book is recommended.
行きたいなら、早く準備しなさい。
If you want to go, hurry up and get ready.
疲れたなら、少し休んだらどう?
If you’re tired, how about resting a bit?
Indicates a natural or inevitable consequence, meaning "when" or "if" something happens, or used for quotations. Formed with verb/adjective plain form + と.
春になると、花が咲く。
When spring comes, the flowers bloom.
スイッチを押すと、電灯が点く。
If you press the switch, the light turns on.
友達は「明日会おう」と言った。
My friend said, “Let’s meet tomorrow.”
Means "even if" or "even though," showing a condition doesn’t change the outcome. Formed with verb/adjective て-form + も (e.g., 行っても, 高くても).
雨が降っても、試合は行う。
Even if it rains, the game will go on.
高くても、この服を買いたい。
Even if it’s expensive, I want to buy this clothing.
忙しくても、毎日日記を書く。
Even if I’m busy, I write in my diary every day.
Indicates two actions happening simultaneously, often formal or written, with a sense of balance or contrast. Formed with verb stem + つつ.
考えつつ歩いていたら、友達に会った。
While thinking and walking, I met a friend.
音楽を聞きつつ、宿題をした。
I did my homework while listening to music.
笑顔を保ちつつ、厳しい話をした。
While keeping a smile, I had a serious conversation.
Indicates two simultaneous actions, less formal than ~つつ, often used in spoken language. Formed with verb stem + ながら.
笑いながら話すので、みんな楽しくなった。
Talking while laughing made everyone cheerful.
テレビを見ながら、晩ご飯を食べる。
I eat dinner while watching TV.
歩きながら本を読むのは危ない。
Reading a book while walking is dangerous.
Indicates the timing of an action (just did, about to do, or in the middle of). Formed with verb plain form + ところ (past, present, or future).
今、学校から帰ってきたところです。
I just got back from school.
食べるところだったのに、電話がかかってきた。
I was about to eat when the phone rang.
勉強しているところを邪魔しないで。
Don’t disturb me while I’m studying.
Indicates something was just completed or emphasizes "only" (focusing on one thing). Formed with verb た-form + ばかり or noun + ばかり.
家に帰ってきたばかりで、疲れている。
I’m tired because I just got home.
試験が終わったばかりなのに、もう次の準備だ。
The exam just finished, but I’m already preparing for the next one.
お金のことばかり考えるのはやめなさい。
Stop thinking only about money.
Means "although" or "despite," showing a contrast where the expected result doesn’t occur. Formed with verb/adjective plain form + ものの.
努力したものの、試験に落ちてしまった。
Although I tried hard, I failed the exam.
親切に教えたものの、彼は聞かなかった。
Although I kindly explained, he didn’t listen.
時間があったものの、宿題をしなかった。
Despite having time, I didn’t do my homework.
Indicates the reason or logical conclusion based on a situation, often meaning "that’s why" or "no wonder." Formed with verb/adjective/noun + わけだ.
遅刻したわけだ、電車が遅れたんだね。
No wonder you were late; the train was delayed.
彼が疲れているわけだ、毎日残業してるから。
It’s no wonder he’s tired; he’s working overtime every day.
そんなに勉強したなら、合格したわけだ。
If you studied that much, it’s no wonder you passed.
Means "as long as" or "to the extent," used for conditions or limits of knowledge/action. Formed with verb/adjective/noun + 限り.
知っている限りでは、彼はまだ日本にいる。
As far as I know, he’s still in Japan.
時間の限り、できるだけ勉強する。
As long as time permits, I’ll study as much as possible.
健康である限り、仕事を続けたい。
As long as I’m healthy, I want to keep working.
Indicates the extent or degree of something, meaning "to the extent that" or "as much as." Often used with exaggerated or intense expressions.
死ぬほど疲れたので、すぐ寝た。
I was so tired I could die, so I slept right away.
この映画は笑うほど面白かった。
This movie was so funny I couldn’t stop laughing.
忙しいほど、時間が足りない。
The busier I am, the less time I have.
Expresses an approximate amount, extent, or degree, often with emotional or subjective nuance. Can be interchangeable, with ぐらい slightly more casual.
泣きたいくらい嬉しいニュースを聞いた。
I heard news so joyful I could cry.
この店は1時間くらい待つことがある。
This shop sometimes requires waiting for about an hour.
疲れるくらい歩いた後は、温泉が最高だ。
After walking so much I’m exhausted, a hot spring is the best.
Means "more than" or "since," used for quantities, time, or logical consequences. Common in formal or precise contexts.
3時間以上待ったのに、彼は来なかった。
I waited for over three hours, but he didn’t come.
18歳以上の人しかこの映画を見られない。
Only people over 18 can watch this movie.
試験に合格した以上、次の目標を決める。
Since I passed the exam, I’ll decide on the next goal.
Compares two things, stating one is preferable or superior, meaning "A is more than B." Formed with より + option + の方が + description.
コーヒーより紅茶の方が好きだ。
I like tea more than coffee.
電車よりバスの方が安い。
The bus is cheaper than the train.
夏より秋の方が涼しくて快適だ。
Autumn is cooler and more comfortable than summer.
Means "compared to," used to highlight differences or contrasts, often in formal or analytical contexts. Follows nouns or verb phrases.
去年に比べて、今年は暖かい。
Compared to last year, this year is warmer.
私の町に比べて、東京はにぎやかだ。
Compared to my town, Tokyo is lively.
勉強に比べて、仕事はもっと難しい。
Compared to studying, work is much harder.
Indicates the purpose of an action (to achieve something) or the cause of a situation. Used with verbs (purpose) or nouns/verbs (cause), often with volitional intent.
健康のために、毎日運動する。
To stay healthy, I exercise every day.
雨のために、電車が遅れた。
Because of the rain, the train was delayed.
試験に合格するために、夜遅くまで勉強した。
To pass the exam, I studied until late at night.
Expresses purpose (so that something happens), a wish, or the manner of an action. Often used with potential verbs or negatives for precaution/wishes.
忘れないように、メモを取った。
I took notes so I wouldn’t forget.
風邪を引かないように、暖かくしてください。
Please stay warm so you don’t catch a cold.
皆が分かるように、簡単に説明した。
I explained simply so everyone could understand.
Formal expression meaning "in order to" or "with the intention of," often in written or official contexts. Formed with verb dictionary form + べく.
成功するべく、全力で努力した。
I worked hard with the intention of succeeding.
問題を解決するべく、会議を開いた。
We held a meeting in order to solve the problem.
環境を守るべく、新しい計画を考えた。
We devised a new plan to protect the environment.
Indicates the cause of a negative outcome ("because of") or uncertainty ("perhaps because"). ~せいで is stronger, ~せいか is speculative, both often with nouns.
彼のせいで、プロジェクトが失敗した。
Because of him, the project failed.
寝不足のせいか、今日は頭が痛い。
Perhaps because of lack of sleep, I have a headache today.
交通事故のせいで、会社に遅れた。
I was late to work because of a traffic accident.
Indicates something seems typical of a category or has a characteristic quality, often based on observation. Used with nouns or adjectives to describe behavior or appearance.
子供らしい行動で、みんなを笑わせた。
With childlike behavior, they made everyone laugh.
彼女は日本人らしい丁寧な態度だ。
She has the polite attitude typical of Japanese people.
この絵は春らしい明るい色を使っている。
This painting uses bright colors typical of spring.
Describes something that has a tendency or resembles a certain quality, often with a casual or slightly negative nuance. Used with nouns or stems to suggest "-like."
彼はちょっと子供っぽい性格だね。
He has a bit of a childish personality, doesn’t he?
この服は若者っぽいデザインだ。
This clothing has a youthful design.
彼女の話し方は男っぽい。
Her way of speaking is rather masculine.
Indicates someone shows signs of a feeling or desire, often used with adjectives of emotion. Formed with adjective stem + がる to describe others’ behavior.
子供が怖がって、部屋から出なかった。
The child was scared and didn’t leave the room.
彼は新しいスマホを欲しがっている。
He’s showing that he wants a new smartphone.
姉は寒がって、コートを着た。
My sister felt cold and put on a coat.
Expresses that something is unlikely to happen, based on appearance or situation. Formed with verb stem + そうにない or そうもない (interchangeable, latter more emphatic).
今日は雨が降りそうにないから、傘は要らない。
It doesn’t look like it’ll rain today, so I don’t need an umbrella.
彼は謝りそうもない態度だった。
He didn’t seem likely to apologize with that attitude.
この問題は簡単に解決しそうにない。
This problem doesn’t seem likely to be solved easily.
Indicates something cannot be done due to social, moral, or situational obligations, meaning "can’t afford to." Formed with verb dictionary form + わけにはいかない.
試験の前に休むわけにはいかない。
I can’t afford to rest before the exam.
友達の頼みを断るわけにはいかない。
I can’t refuse a friend’s request.
遅刻するわけにはいかないので、早く出かけた。
I couldn’t afford to be late, so I left early.
Indicates there is "nothing but" or "only" one option, often with a sense of limitation. Formed with noun + しかない or verb dictionary form + しかない.
冷蔵庫に水しかないから、買い物に行く。
There’s only water in the fridge, so I’ll go shopping.
今は我慢するしかない。
All we can do now is endure.
この店には小さいサイズしかない。
This shop only has small sizes.
Indicates a personal decision or resolution to do something. Formed with verb dictionary form + ことにする, often reflecting a deliberate choice.
毎日勉強することにした。
I decided to study every day.
ダイエットのために、甘いものを食べないことにした。
For my diet, I decided not to eat sweets.
週末は早く起きることにした。
I decided to wake up early on weekends.
Indicates something has been decided or arranged, often by external forces or circumstances. Formed with verb dictionary form + ことになる.
会議が中止になったことになった。
It’s been decided that the meeting was canceled.
来年海外に留学することになった。
It’s been arranged that I’ll study abroad next year.
新しい規則が導入されることになった。
It’s been decided that new regulations will be introduced.
Indicates an action is incomplete or in progress, meaning "in the middle of." Formed with verb stem + かけ + だ, often with tangible objects.
書きかけの手紙を机に置いた。
I left a half-written letter on the desk.
彼女は食べかけのお菓子を鞄に入れた。
She put half-eaten snacks in her bag.
読みかけの本を図書館に返してしまった。
I accidentally returned a half-read book to the library.
Indicates a fear or risk that something undesirable might happen, often formal. Formed with noun/verb dictionary form + おそれがある.
事故のおそれがあるので、注意してください。
There’s a risk of an accident, so please be careful.
台風で電車が止まるおそれがある。
There’s a fear that the train might stop due to the typhoon.
病気が悪化するおそれがあるから、病院に行く。
There’s a risk the illness might worsen, so I’ll go to the hospital.
Indicates doing something without doing another action, with a literary or formal tone. Formed with verb negative stem + ず.
朝ご飯を食べずに出かけた。
I went out without eating breakfast.
宿題を終えずに遊びに行った。
I went to play without finishing my homework.
確かめずに答えたので、間違えた。
I answered without checking, so I got it wrong.
Similar to ~ず, indicates doing something without doing another action, but more formal and common in written language. Formed with verb negative stem + ずに.
見ずに答えたので、間違えた。
I answered without looking, so I made a mistake.
準備をせずに会議に参加した。
I attended the meeting without preparing.
連絡せずに友達の家を訪れた。
I visited my friend’s house without contacting them.
Means "through" or "throughout," indicating a medium, period, or process. Used with nouns to show means or duration.
一年をとおして暖かい気候の地域だ。
It’s a region with warm weather throughout the year.
友達をとおして、新しい仕事を見つけた。
I found a new job through a friend.
インターネットをとおして、世界の情報を知る。
I learn about world information through the internet.
Indicates something is intended or suitable for a specific group or purpose. Formed with noun + 向け, often for products or services.
子供向けの本を図書館で借りた。
I borrowed a children’s book from the library.
初心者向けの日本語コースを受けた。
I took a Japanese course for beginners.
若い人向けの流行の服が多い。
There are many trendy clothes aimed at young people.
Specific counters for frequency (回), occurrences/temperature (度), or multiples (倍), used for precise quantification. N3 requires familiarity with context-specific counters.
この映画は3回見ました。
I watched this movie three times.
気温が30度を超えた。
The temperature exceeded 30 degrees.
去年の2倍の時間を勉強に使った。
I spent twice as much time studying as last year.
Indicates "every" or "per" for regular intervals of time or units. Used with time/noun + ごと to show repetition or entirety.
1週間ごとに医者に相談する。
I consult the doctor every week.
家族ごと旅行の計画を立てた。
Each family made their own travel plans.
ページごとにメモを取る。
I take notes for every page.
Means "each" or "little by little," indicating distribution or gradual progression. Used with noun/verb + ずつ for equal portions or increments.
りんごを一人ずつ分けた。
I gave one apple to each person.
本を1日に2冊ずつ読む。
I read two books each day.
少ししずつ日本語が上手になる。
I’m getting better at Japanese little by little.
Mastery of transitive (他動詞) and intransitive (自動詞) verb pairs, where transitive requires an object and intransitive does not. N3 emphasizes correct usage in context.
会議を始める前に資料を準備した。
I prepared materials before starting the meeting. [Transitive: 始める]
授業が9時に始まる。
The class begins at 9 o’clock. [Intransitive: 始まる]
ドアを閉めたのに、風でまた開いた。
I closed the door, but it opened again because of the wind. [Transitive: 閉める, Intransitive: 開く]
Understanding subtle differences, such as transitive verbs for intentional actions and intransitive verbs for states or spontaneous events. N3 tests precision in usage.
窓が開いているから、寒いね。
The window is open, so it’s cold, isn’t it? [Intransitive: state]
窓を開けて、部屋を涼しくした。
I opened the window to cool the room. [Transitive: action]
火が消えた後で、電気を点けた。
After the fire went out, I turned on the light. [Intransitive: 消える, Transitive: 点ける]
Indicates something was just completed, often with a sense of freshness or immediacy. Formed with verb た-form + たて, commonly used with food or actions.
焼きたてのパンを食べると、幸せになる。
Eating freshly baked bread makes me happy.
書きたての手紙をポストに入れた。
I put a freshly written letter in the mailbox.
塗りたての壁はまだ乾いていない。
The freshly painted wall hasn’t dried yet.
Used to recall or confirm something the speaker is unsure about, often in casual conversation. Formed with noun/question word + っけ.
彼の名前は何だったっけ?
What was his name again?
昨日の会議は何時だったっけ?
What time was yesterday’s meeting again?
あの店の場所はどこだったっけ?
Where was that shop again?
Formal expression meaning "after" or "upon" completing a process, often used in decision-making contexts. Formed with verb た-form + 上で.
よく考えた上で、仕事を変えることにした。
After careful consideration, I decided to change jobs.
相談した上で、旅行の計画を決めた。
After discussing, we decided on the travel plan.
試した上で、この製品を買うか決める。
I’ll decide whether to buy this product after trying it.
Indicates a negative possibility, meaning "might end up" with an undesirable outcome. Formed with verb dictionary form + かねない.
急ぐと、失敗しかねないよ。
If you rush, you might end up failing.
この古い機械は壊れかねない。
This old machine might break down.
注意しないと、事故を起こしかねない。
If you’re not careful, you might cause an accident.
Indicates something is suitable or intended for a specific group or purpose. Formed with noun + 向き, similar to ~向け but emphasizes suitability.
この本は初心者向きの簡単な内容だ。
This book has simple content suitable for beginners.
この仕事は細かい作業が好きな人向きだ。
This job is suitable for people who like detailed work.
大人向きの映画は子供には難しい。
Movies suitable for adults are difficult for children.